BLACK SOCIAL HISTORY 
(Department of Defense, 1985)
Overview of Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation
Originally issued in 1982, this 1985 edition pays tribute to heroic contributions of black Americans to the U.S.'s security. Black Americans who committed themselves to the U.S.'s defense during the last four centuries are featured. This publication was created as part of the Human Goals Program under President Reagan.
Chapter 1
Military Heritage - Through the 19th Century Introduction
The military heritage of black Americans is as long as the history of a black presence in North America. From the first recorded visit of a black person to what is now the United States in 1528, blacks, slave and non-slave, have participated in military or quasi-military actions. Such participation has not received extensive coverage in general history books. Nor was such participation undertaken without difficulty. White Americans have been ambivalent over the years about black participation in military organizations and in most instances have encouraged or allowed blacks in military activities only when forced by circumstances to do so.
This booklet does not attempt to chronicle the full range of black contributions to America's military; for they are substantial. Rather, it presents a brief overview which touches upon significant events in U.S. military history and the role of black Americans in that history.
The image of military organizations within the societies they serve, particularly in democracies, is a cyclical one - positive in times of crisis, negative in times of peace. Whatever the current image, it is appropriate to remember those who have made contributions or set precedents. It is to such a group that this brief history is dedicated.
Colonial Period (1528-1774)
Most history books note that the first blacks to arrive in North America came as slaves to Jamestown in 1619. The first recorded visit of a black person to what is now the United States, however, occurred almost one hundred years earlier.
In February, 1528, Panfilo de Narvaez led an expedition of 400 persons from Cuba. His goal was the Rio Grande river. Among his party was a black slave named Estebanico (also known as Estevan, or Stephen).
Beset by storms, the expedition was driven ashore on the west coast of Florida. The party split and some proceeded overland while others stayed aboard ship and attempted to reach their original destination. The land party met disaster, and seven years later, four survivors, Estevan among them, reached northern Mexico where they were rescued. Taken to Mexico City, the survivors told of their incredible journey and of a region to the north which had several large, wealthy cities. It was also stated that Estevan knew the trail leading to them.
Don Antonio de Mendoza, Imperial Viceroy in Mexico, authorized Estevan, now called Estevanico de Dorantes, to guide an expedition to seek out the golden cities which he had learned about while wandering among the Indians in Texas and northern Mexico.
Traveling north from Mexico City, Estevan soon separated from Fray Marcos, a priest and titular head of the expedition. Striking out with his own retinue, Estevan traveled through northern Mexico, parts of Arizona, and New Mexico. He eventually reached the pueblo of Hawikuh, one of six pueblos of the people now known as the Zuni, in May, 1539. There, after apparently insulting the tribespeople, he was killed; thus ending the first visit of a black person to this continent. His death and the continued reports of the golden cities caused Viceroy Mendoza to send a second expedition, under Coronado, to the area. Coronado's search for the Seven Cities of Cibola are well known.
During the seventeenth century, Europeans - English, Dutch, French, Spanish - established colonies along the east coast of the present day United States. Blacks, principally slaves, arrived in 1619 (Jamestown), 1626 (New Amsterdam), and 1636 (Salem). Native Americans were perceived by most colonists to pose a threat. Consequently, militia groups were organized for self-defense from among the citizens. The first law enacting such an organization was passed in 1607.
Throughout Europe, defense of one's city or country was an obligation of male citizens. Prominent, upper-class citizens became officers and more common folk, soldiers. The lower classes of society served in the professional army for service abroad. This pattern was loosely followed in the colonies. Early legislation made no reference to race as a criterion for membership or nonmembership; however, by 1639, Virginia had enacted a bill excluding "Negroes" from being provided with arms or ammunition.
Experiences varied from colony to colony. In 1641, the Dutch West India Company in the colony of New Amsterdam armed black slaves with "a tomy hawk and a half pike" to assist the colonists in fighting "murderous" Indians. In 1643, a black man, Abraham Pearse, was listed on the roles of men capable of bearing arms in Plymouth colony. By 1652, Massachusetts colony required: "All Negroes and Indians from sixteen to sixty years of age, inhabitants or servants to the English, be listed and hereby enjoined to attend military trainings as well as the English."
Such militia service by blacks, however, was scattered and on an individual basis. New England colonies soon followed the Virginia lead and began to ban blacks from militia organizations. These actions created much controversy among white colonists. While there was fear that blacks trained in the use of weapons and tactics would increase the likelihood of slave revolts, exclusion of blacks from the militia gave them a high social status on par with ministers and public officials, who were also exempted. Many colonial legislatures, therefore, required able-bodied free blacks to work on public projects for as many days as white settlers gave to military service. Black slaves were also commonly used as laborers as demonstrated by the Dutch in 1664 when they put their slaves to work building breastworks to defend New Amsterdam from assault by the English.
Throughout the colonial period in New England and the central colonies, free blacks were generally permitted to enlist as soldiers in the militia. Slaves, however, were excluded from armed service and were used only as laborers. South Carolina was the sole exception, allowing "trusty" slaves to assist in the defense of the colony in 1703.
In the southern colonies, greater restrictions were placed upon blacks, due generally to their greater numbers, the paucity of free blacks, and white concerns about slave revolts. Nonetheless, in times of emergency, blacks were permitted by law to serve in military units. This was a policy adopted of necessity as there were too few whites to carry out a large scale military effort. By 1706, all free men in North Carolina were required to be organized into militia units and in the event of Indian outbreaks, all able bodied men, slave and free, were required to serve. In 1711, blacks fought in the Tuscarora War in North Carolina and in 1715 approximately four hundred blacks and six hundred whites defeated a group of Indians in the Yamasee War.
In the southernmost colonies, a similar pattern occurred. From 1718 to 1731 approximately two thousand black slaves had been brought to the French colony of Louisiana. They constituted over a third of the colony's population. Most were sold to white settlers by the Company of the Indies, but others were retained by the Company. Some of these people were organized into semimilitary units for control purposes, and in late 1729, a company of volunteers from this group was used by the governor to destroy a village of the Chaouacha Indians as a lesson to neighboring tribes not to join a revolt underway by the Natchez Indians.
Later in 1730, blacks constituted approximately 10% of a force which clashed with Natchez warriors near Pointe Coupee. A memorial praising black participants in this conflict was presented in mid 1730 which recommended freedom for all slaves who risked their lives for the French. Some were freed. In 1736, blacks constituted almost 19% of a Spanish force assembled in Mobile for another assault on the Natchez. Accompanying them was a separate company of blacks with free blacks serving as officers. This represents the first occasion blacks served as officers in a colonial military unit.
Further north, French and English forces clashed over the boundaries of the possessions of the two countries. The fight, known as the French and Indian War, began in 1753 and ended in 1764. Blacks served as scouts, wagoners, and laborers in this war with the regular English forces. In addition, black militia men served with independent colonist units from Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. By the end of the war, England had captured much of the territory previously claimed by France, and black Americans had won honors in battles at Fort Duquesne, Fort Cumberland, and the Plains of Abraham outside Quebec. "Negro Mountain" in Western Maryland honors a black man killed in a fight against the Indians during this war.
By the end of the Colonial period, several patterns had emerged. Black had become synonymous with slave even though there were numerous free blacks in many Northern colonies. As the black population grew from zero in the 1600's to 462,000 in 1770, white colonists increasingly feared that blacks trained in military arts would foment revolts. Hence blacks were exempted from peacetime military duty. During emergencies, however, there was insufficient manpower among the white colonists to meet the military need. Therefore, limited numbers of blacks were allowed to participate; generally in support roles, but occasionally in combat units. Leadership roles, particularly officer positions, however, were denied to blacks.
American Revolution (1775-1783) and the Black Participation in the War for Independence
General - On the eve of revolution, approximately 20% of the colonial population of 22 million was black. From the very beginning, the question of arming the black population proved a source of bitter controversy among the colonists. Blacks had already proven themselves in combat during the previous years and many were members of the new state militias. Fear of slave revolts, however, was still first in the minds of many white colonists. Resultant policies differed in the newly created Continental Army and Continental Navy, so they will be examined separately.
As early as April, 1775 black "minutemen" had fought at Lexington and Concord. But should they be permitted into the newly formed "regular" army?
In May, 1775 the Committee of Safety of the Massachusetts legislature presented the following resolution: "Resolved, that it is the opinion of this Committee, as the contest now between Great Britain and the Colonies respects the liberties and privileges of the latter, which the Colonies are determined to maintain, that the admission of any persons, as soldiers, into the army now raising, but only such as are freemen, will be inconsistent with the principles that are to be supported, and reflect dishonor on this Colony, and that no slaves be admitted into this army upon any consideration whatever."
Thus when George Washington assumed command of the Continental forces in July, 1775, his Adjutant General, Horatio Gates, ordered recruiting officers not to enlist any "stroller, Negro, or vagabond".
If the colonists were fearful of black recruits, their British opponents were not. Recognizing that slavery was a divisive issue, suffering from his own manpower shortages, and desiring a swift end to the conflict, John Murray, Earl of Dunmore and Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 which stated: ". . . and I do hereby further declare all indented servants, Negroes, or others, (appertaining to Rebels,) free, that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's Troops, as soon as may be, for the more speedily reducing the Colony to a proper sence of their duty, to His Majesty's crown and dignity."
By December, 1775 almost three hundred blacks, paying this price for freedom, with "Liberty to Slaves" inscribed on their uniforms, were members of Lord Dunmore's "Ethiopian Regiment".
As a result of Lord Dunmore's action, the continuing debate in the Continental Congress, and the protests from the excluded black community, Washington, in December, 1775, authorized recruiting officers to sign up free Negroes "desirous of enlisting". Slave participation was strictly prohibited and this was reinforced by General Orders issued on February 21, 1776.
Despite these policies, slaves did participate. Some were "substituted" for their masters who chose not to serve. In 1777, a journal entry by a Hessian officer noted the presence of blacks in most colonial regiments and British troops sang this derisively:
- "The rebel clowns, oh what a sight
- To awkward was their figure
- 'Twas yonder stood a pious wight
- And here and there a nigger"
By mid 1778, each brigade in Washington's little army averaged 42 black soldiers; all serving on an integrated basis. Later in the year, all-black units (a battalion from Rhode Island, a company from Boston called the "Bucks of America", and a company from Connecticut known as the "Colonials") were formed. The most significant encounter in which an all-black unit fought was the battle of Rhode Island in August 1778. During that engagement, this unit, which was relatively untrained, held the line against four hours of British-Hessian assaults, enabling the entire American army to escape a trap.
In 1779 allied French forces besieged the British garrison of Savannah. Among the troops were approximately 600 free blacks and slaves from the French West Indies. Later that year, when Spain joined France as an ally, black troops from Louisiana comprised almost half the force commanded by Governor Bernardo Galvez who successfully drove the British from Louisiana and the Mississippi valley; thereby preventing the southern flank of the Continental forces from being turned.
By war's end, approximately 5,000 black soldiers had served in the Colonial army of 300,000. Black troops had fought in most major battles and had garnered honors and praise from their commanders.
The Navy - The small Continental navy was supplemented by individual state navies, privateers, and vessels sailing under letters of marque. All carried blacks, although race was not always noted on ship rosters.
Naval vessels suffered from chronic manpower shortages. Many black seamen had naval experience from previous colonial wars or from serving on numerous coastal vessels prior to the war. Although no ship captains were black, many pilots were black. As early as 1775 a recruiting poster in Newport sought "ye able backed sailors, men white or black, to volunteer for naval service in ye interest of freedom."
No state passed legislation barring blacks from naval service and several states paid bonuses to black crew members or granted freedom to known slaves.
Conclusion - Service in Colonial military units on land and at sea brought some gains to specific blacks who had participated. Some who were slaves were freed and others received land grants for service. On the whole, however, contributions of black Americans were soon forgotten by the society at large. Although blacks died and gave brave, honorable service, none were given much recognition or declared to be national heroes.
War of 1812 (1812-1815)
With the end of the American Revolution, blacks were virtually eliminated from the small armed forces of the new nation. Congress passed an Act in 1792 restricting militia service to "free able-bodied white male citizens." Most states followed suit, restricting service in their militias to whites. Even rules issued in 1798 for the newly established Marine Corps stated that "no Negro, mulatto or Indian" was to be enlisted.
In 1803, however, the purchase of Louisiana from France created a dilemma for the new nation. A militia unit of free blacks, recognized by both Spain and France when they held the territory, volunteered to continue service under the United States. They were ignored; then partially recognized; then ordered disbanded. America was not prepared to support a group of armed blacks; particularly in the South.
During 1804-05, Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark explored the newly purchased Louisiana Territory and mapped an overland route to the Pacific Ocean. Clark brought along a slave called York. York soon became an ambassador for the expedition among the plains Indians. They had never seen a black man before and were intrigued. In addition, it was a custom among many of the tribes that warriors returning from a successful raid or battle would daub parts of their body with charcoal to symbolize their bravery. York was seen as a very brave man. His entire body was black and the color would not come off. He was obviously the leader of the group to many, not Lewis or Clark, for only braves lead parties such as this. Consequently, many tribes assumed to be hostile by Lewis and Clark were found to be friendly, thanks to York.
Although blacks had been barred from the militia in 1792 and from the Marines in 1798, the Navy was too short of personnel to seek or enforce a similar ban. Thus, when the British man-of-war Leopard stopped the American ship Chesapeake in 1807 to search for deserters from the British navy, four blacks were among those impressed.
The war of 1812 proved, for the most part, to be a naval war with fleets engaged at sea as well as on the Great Lakes. With their Revolutionary war experience and relatively unlimited access to shipping jobs, blacks proved to be a most valuable and eagerly sought source of manpower. Blacks constituted from 10-20% of most ship's crews and performed heroic duty in many engagements. Even Oliver Hazard Perry, who objected to the "motley set - blacks, soldiers, boys" sent him in 1812, spoke of his black crew members as "absolutely insensible to danger" after their efforts in freeing the Great Lakes from British control.
On land, however, the black soldier was excluded. Attempts to volunteer were rejected in most states, although soon after Louisiana became a state in April, 1812, the legislature authorized the governor to enroll free black landowners in the militia. In September, 1812, the Battalion of Free Men of Color was formed around the group which had previously existed, but rejected in 1803. The commanding officer was white, but three black second lieutenants were commissioned. These troops did not see action until 1815.
New York was the first northern state to seek black participation in the war effort. In 1814, approximately two thousand blacks, slave and free, were enlisted into two regiments. Slaves were to receive their freedom at the end of the war. A battalion of blacks was also raised in Philadelphia, but the war ended before it saw service.
But it was in the southern theatre of war that the greatest contribution of black soldiers occurred, even though the war was officially ended.
British forces under General Pakenham threatened the city of New Orleans. Local citizens had rejected offers by the Battalion of Free Men of Color to assist in the city's defense. General Andrew Jackson, however, being short of effective troops insisted the offer be accepted. Drawn up on the Chalmette Plains, the American forces resisted the British attack. The black troops participating (the Battalion of Free Men of Color plus a battalion of soldiers from St. Domingo) held their portion of the line, then counterattacked. The worst defeat suffered by British arms in years produced a psychological high point for the American people. Ironically, the black role was soon overlooked, as black veterans were not permitted to march in the annual parades celebrating the victory.
The War of 1812 not only provided the capstone of American independence, it also consolidated the slave system of the South. Hopes of black Americans for peace and liberty were dashed when the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, provided for the mutual restoration of properties. Blacks who had fled to British lines seeking freedom were returned to slavery or taken to the West Indies, sold, and their American owners were indemnified.
The Seminole Wars (1816-1842)
Throughout the colonial period, but particularly during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, black slaves took advantage of the societal disruptions to escape. Many sought and obtained haven with the Seminole Indians in Florida. England and later Spain, which claimed portions of the area, refused to return the escapees to their irate owners. The blacks settled with the Seminoles, intermarried, and established themselves as farmers, counselors, and tribal war leaders.
During the War of 1812, a small British force rebuilt an old Spanish fort in Florida, approximately sixty miles from the border with the United States. The Commander, Lieutenant Colonel Nichols, recruited Indians and runaway blacks to staff the fort and soon raids were being conducted into Georgia. Their base became known as the "Negro Fort" and was a major irritant to Georgia slaveowners. In 1816, the fort was attacked and destroyed by American troops under Colonel Edmund Gaines. Thus the First Seminole War began as an attempt to recapture runaway slaves. After the Battle of New Orleans, General Andrew Jackson led a second expedition into Florida to recapture runaway slaves. He destroyed Indian villages, scattering their inhabitants and eventually forcing the Spanish to cede their Florida territory to the United States in 1819.
The Second Seminole War (1835-1842) was fought in order to remove the Seminole from Florida because they were in the way of white settlement. Blacks constituted from one-quarter to one-third of the warrior strength that resisted this removal policy. After seven years of war, 2,000 U.S. soldier deaths, and $4060 million in government expenditures, the Seminoles and a few blacks were allowed to emigrate to Indian Territory. Some blacks escaped to Mexico, others were returned to former white owners.
The black presence among the seminole is believed to be a principal reason that the removal of the Seminoles was sought, as they were a magnet to plantation slaves in georgia and elsewhere. Black presence with the Seminole also heavily influenced the Seminoles to resist. The prolonged and costly nature of the war proved to the soldiers who fought them that contrary to popular opinion, lessons blacks could fight, had initiative, and possessed leadership qualities. These lessons were lost on the society at large.
In 1820 the Army prohibited "Negroes or Mulattoes" from enlisting and by 1850 the military exploits of blacks had been forgotten. It took the work of John Greenlief Whittier in 1847 and of William Nell, a black historian, in 1851 to remind the Nation that blacks had honorably served in America's military and deserved recognition for those efforts.
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